Category: biosynthesis
Essential trace minerals serve as obligate enzyme cofactors throughout metabolism. Mg²⁺ — ATP-Mg complex obligate for all kinases + Na/K-ATPase; >300 enzymes. Zn²⁺ — alcohol dehydrogenase + carbonic anhydrase + carboxypeptidase + zinc-finger TFs (e.g. steroid hormone receptors). Cu — cytochrome c oxidase + superoxide dismutase + tyrosinase + lysyl oxidase + dopamine β-hydroxylase. Mn — Mn-SOD (mitochondrial) + arginase + glutamine synthetase. Mo — xanthine oxidase + sulfite oxidase + aldehyde oxidase. Se — glutathione peroxidase + thioredoxin reductase + thyroid deiodinases (DIO1-3 — cross-link: hpt_axis); selenocysteine is the 21st amino acid. Cr³⁺ — disputed; chromium-binding protein "chromodulin" possibly amplifies insulin signaling, but human deficiency cases are essentially nil. I — thyroid hormone synthesis (cross-link: hpt_axis).